#Kings bounty the legend letters of request series#
Ī body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.
The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources ( Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about AD 395. The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus are patchy and frequently unreliable.
The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five to ten million people. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during Marcus's reign, but his involvement in this is unlikely, as early Christians living in the 2nd century never claimed him as a persecutor and Tertullian even called Marcus a "protector of Christians". He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. In the East, the Romans fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Under Marcus's rule, the Roman Empire witnessed heavy military conflict. He married Antoninus's daughter Faustina in 145.Īfter Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who reigned under the name Lucius Verus.
Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus's uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. His father died when he was three, and his mother and grandfather raised him. Marcus was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161.
He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good Emperors (a term coined some 13 centuries later by Niccolò Machiavelli), and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace and stability for the Roman Empire lasting from 27 BC to 180 AD. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( / ɔː ˈ r iː l i ə s/ aw- REE-lee-əs 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher.